Jeongjo

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Jeongjo
Emperor of Korea
(posthumously)
Modern portrait in military attire, housed at the Hwaryeongjeon Shrine in Suwon, 2004[a]
King of Joseon
Reign22 April 1776 – 18 August 1800
Enthronement27 April 1776
Sungjeongjeon Hall, Gyeonghuigung
PredecessorYeongjo
SuccessorSunjo
Regent of Joseon
Tenure30 January – 22 April 1776
MonarchYeongjo
Grand Heir of Joseon
Tenure10 March 1759 – 22 April 1776
PredecessorGrand Heir Jeong
SuccessorGrand Heir Hwan
Born28 October 1752
Gyeongchunjeon Hall, Changgyeonggung, Hanseong, Joseon
Died18 August 1800(1800-08-18) (aged 47)
Yeongchunheon Pavilion, Changgyeonggung, Hanseong, Joseon
Burial
Geolleung, Yunggeolleung Cluster, Hwaseong, South Korea
Spouse
​
(m. 1762)​
Issue
Detail
Names
Yi San (이산; 李祘)[b]
Era dates
Adopted the era name of the Qing dynasty[c]
Posthumous name
  • Joseon: Great King Gongseon Munseong Muyeol Seongin Janghyo (공선문성무열성인장효대왕; 恭宣文成武烈聖仁莊孝大王)
  • Korean Empire: Emperor Munseong Muyeol Seongin Janghyo Seon (문성무열성인장효선황제; 文成武烈聖仁莊孝宣皇帝)[d]
  • Qing dynasty: Gongseon (공선; 恭宣)
Temple name
Jeongjong (정종; 正宗) → Jeongjo (정조; 正祖)[e]
ClanJeonju Yi
DynastyYi
Father
Mother
ReligionKorean Confucianism (Neo-Confucianism)
Signature
Korean name
Hangul
정조
Hanja
正祖
Lit."Righteous Progenitor"
RRJeongjo
MRChŏngjo
Art name
Hangul
홍재
Hanja
弘齋
RRHongjae
MRHongjae
Courtesy name
Hangul
형운
Hanja
亨運
RRHyeongun
MRHyŏngun
Hwaseong Fortress

Jeongjo (Korean: 정조; Hanja: 正祖; 28 October 1752 – 18 August 1800),[f] personal name Yi San, sometimes known as Jeongjo the Great, was the 22nd monarch of Joseon. He was the second son of the ill-fated Crown Prince Sado and Lady Hyegyŏng, and ascended to the throne upon the death of his grandfather, King Yeongjo. Despite the persistence of factional struggles, his reign marked a cultural and political renaissance, and is considered one of the high points of the Joseon period. Today, he is generally regarded to be among the greatest leaders in Korean history.[2] Following the establishment of the Korean Empire, he was honored as Emperor Seon.

Jeongjo continued his grandfather's Tangpyeong policy (but took on a different approach, prioritizing the recruitment of the most talented scholars regardless of faction), encouraged the publication of literary collections and legal codes, established the Jangyongyeong Guard and the Kyujanggak Royal Library, and ordered the construction of Hwaseong Fortress. However, his appointment of Hong Guk-yeong left behind the malpractice of having state affairs swayed by close retainers. Furthermore, just before his death, worried about his young heir, he chose the daughter of Kim Jo-sun of the Andong Kim clan as crown princess; yet this turned out to be a self-defeating move that tilted power to one side and became the backdrop for the era of Sedo politics (세도정치; 勢道政治; lit. ''power politics''; also known as "in-law politics").

Biography

Early life

He was the son of Crown Prince Sado and Lady Hyegyŏng (who wrote the Memoirs of Lady Hyegyŏng, which details her life and offers advice and explanations for her grandson about the deaths of his grandfather and many maternal relatives). His elder brother Crown Prince Uiso died in infancy. His mother Lady Hyegyŏng's collection of memoirs serves as a significant source of historical information on the political happenings during the reigns of King Yeongjo (her father-in-law), King Jeongjo (her son), and King Sunjo (her grandson).

In 1762, Crown Prince Sado was executed (by imprisonment in a rice chest) by King Yeongjo after long conflicts and Sado's years of mental illness.[3] On 21 February 1764, Yi San became the adoptive son of Crown Prince Hyojang and Princess Consort Hyosun by the order of King Yeongjo.[4] Crown Prince Hyojang was the elder half-brother of his father, Crown Prince Sado. Crown Prince Hyojang though, had died during his childhood. King Yeongjo made Yi San a part of Hyojang's family because he was concerned that Yi San, who was Sado's son and successor, would be opposed. The Noron faction protested Yi San's legitimacy as the royal successor under the claim that Yi San was the 'Son of a prisoner' or 'Son of a madman' and thus ineligible to succeed the throne. This was a major source of vexation for King Yeongjo for an extended period.

After 1762 to 1777, some members of Noron attempted to depose Jeongjo for his relation to Crown Prince Sado and open the path of succession for his half-brothers Prince Eunjeon, Prince Euneon and, Prince Eunshin. His grand uncle Hong In-han and Jeong Hu-gyeom, adopted son of Princess Hwawan, were amongst them.[5]

When he was the Crown Prince, King Jeongjo met Hong Guk-yeong[6] (홍국영; 洪國榮), a controversial politician who first strongly supported Jeongjo's accession and toiled to improve the king's power, but ended up being expelled because of his desire and ambition for power. Another helper was Kim Jong-su (김종수; 金鍾秀), despite being a member of Noron.

In 1775, one year before King Yeongjo's death, King Jeongjo was appointed regent. However, King Yeongjo did not give him any military power.

Reign

Before Yeongjo died, Jeongjo had his coronation in Gyeonghuigung on 10 March 1776.[7] After his coronation, Jeongjo chose his spouse.[8] The first thing that Jeongjo said to his officials was that he was the son of Jangjo (temple name of Crown Prince Sado) who was executed by the former king.[9]

Jeongjo tried to empathize with his people.[10] During his second year of reign, a great drought came. During the drought, Jeongjo was nervous just like the people and did a rainmaking ritual for his people.[11] He also was deeply concerned about the continuing outbreaks of measles epidemics, and among other things supplied free public medicines in an attempt curb the death rates.[12]

Concerned about political factions, Jeongjo continued his grandfather's policy of Tangpyeong (political harmony policy) in an attempt to balance political factions.[13] By this, he tried to get rid of the parties which caused his father's death.[3]

From the first day of the reign, Jeongjo spent much of his reign trying to clear his father's name.[10] One of the first things Jeongjo said following his ascension to the throne of Joseon was declaring that he was the son of Crown Prince Sado.[14][15] He also moved the court to the city of Suwon to be closer to his father's grave. He built Hwaseong Fortress to guard the tomb. It is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Jeongjo was always threatened by some of his officials who were against his reign. He was able to overcome these challenges with the help of Hong Guk-yeong and others.[3]

During his accession, he also issued a royal decree that his mother, Lady Hyegyŏng, be a Dowager Queen since his father, her husband, was supposed to be the King before him. Thus, she became the Queen Dowager, the widow of Jangjo. From then on, King Jeongjo experienced many turbulent periods, but overcame them with the aid of Hong Guk-yeong,[6] Kim Chong-su.

In 1776, Hong Sang-beom, Hong Kye-neung and other some member of Noron unsuccessfully attempted to stage a military coup d'état and assassinate him. Jeongjo fought the rebels who were secretly in royal palace and personally arrested his assassins. Jeongjo executed Hong Sang-beom, Hong Kye-neung, and another some member of Norons, and put to death Prince Eunjeon, Hong In-han, and Chung Hu-kyom.

Jeongjo tried to impeach Hong Guk-yeong in an attempt to stop the concentration of political power in single civil family but the impeachment failed.

In 1785 he established Changyongyeong (장용영; 壯勇營) as the King's royal bodyguards. Jeongjo had started selecting officers by competitive examination since 1782 to recruit them into the Changyongyeong unit, to replace the Naekeunwe (corps of Joseon royal bodyguards created by Taejong of Joseon in 1407), which he no longer trusted.

Renaissance

King Jeongjo led the renaissance of Joseon, but was initially busy continuing the policy of Yeongjo's Tangpyeong ("Magnificent Harmony"; 蕩平, 탕평) policy of political reconciliation between the parties. He tried to control the politics of the whole nation to advance and further national progress.

He made various reforms throughout his reign, notably establishing Kyujanggak (규장각), a royal library. The primary purpose of Kyujanggak was to improve the cultural and political stance of Joseon and to recruit gifted officers to help run the nation. Jeongjo also spearheaded bold new social initiatives, including opening government positions to those who were previously barred because of their social status.

He cultivated knowledge of humanities and philosophy (Neo-Confucianism). He was known to be studious and well-read. Among the King's entourage, one that had a great influence and became both a great teacher and father figure for him was Kim Jong-su. Jeongjo also had the support of the many Silhak scholars who favored regal power over the parties, including scholars Chŏng Yagyong, Pak Chiwŏn, Pak Chega and Yu Deuk-gong. His reign also saw the further growth and development of Joseon's popular culture.

Jeongjo favored members of the Soron and Namin party over those of the powerful Noron faction, as a way to establish checks and balances and strengthen royal authority.

He was opposed to new fashions in the composition style of Korean writing and personally taught composition to some intellectuals and bureaucrats called Munchebanjong (문체반정 文體反正 – literary criticism/reform).

In 1791, Jeongjo got a report from Ch'ae Chegong that the people were having difficulty surviving by selling the fruit of their labor.[16] Jeongjo then established the new law of Shinhae Tonggong (free trade law), which allowed anyone to sell their goods at the market. This abolished the previous law of Gumnanjeonguoun,[17] which reserved this right exclusively to members of merchant groups in the capital.[18]

Death

In his final years, Jeongjo arranged for the marriage of his second son and successor Sunjo of Joseon to Lady Kim of the Andong clan, daughter of Kim Jo-sun, but did not live to see his son's marriage. In 1800, Jeongjo died suddenly under uncertain circumstances at the age of 47, without seeing much of his life's work come to fruition under his son, Sunjo.[19] There are many books regarding the mystery behind his death, and speculation as to the cause of his death continues even today.[20]

He is buried with his wife, Queen Hyoui, at the royal tomb of Geonneung (건릉; 健陵) in the city of Hwaseong.

On 7 December 1899, Jeongjo posthumously became Jeongjo Sanghwangjae.[21]

Family

  • Biological father: King Jangjo of Joseon (조선의 장조대왕; 13 February 1735 – 12 July 1762)[22][g]
    • Grandfather: King Yeongjo of Joseon (조선의 영조대왕; 31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776)[22]
    • Biological grandmother: Concubine Yeong of the Jeonui Yi clan (영빈 이씨; 5 August 1696 – 12 August 1764)
    • Legal grandmother: Queen Jeongseong of the Daegu Seo clan (정성왕후 서씨; 2 January 1693 – 23 March 1757)
  • Adoptive father: King Jinjong of Joseon (조선의 진종대왕; 4 April 1719 – 16 December 1728)
  • Biological mother: Queen Heongyeong of the Pungsan Hong clan (헌경왕후 홍씨; 6 August 1735 – 13 January 1816)[22]
    • Grandfather: Hong Bong-han (홍봉한; 1713–1778)[22]
    • Grandmother: Lady, of the Hansan Yi clan (한산 이씨; 1713–1755)
  • Adoptive mother: Queen Hyosun of the Pungyang Jo clan (효순왕후 조씨; 8 January 1716 – 30 December 1751)

Consort(s) and their respective issue

  • Queen Hyoui of the Cheongpung Kim clan (효의왕후 김씨; 25 December 1753 – 29 March 1821)[22]
  • Concubine Su of the Bannam Park clan (수빈 박씨; 1 June 1770 – 6 February 1823)
  • Concubine Ui of the Changnyeong Seong clan (의빈 성씨; 6 August 1753 – 4 November 1786)
    • Miscarriage (1780)
    • Miscarriage (1781)
    • Yi Yang, Crown Prince Munhyo (문효세자 이양; 13 October 1782 – 6 June 1786), first son
    • First daughter (1784)
    • Unborn child (1786)[h]
  • Concubine Won of the Pungsan Hong clan (원빈 홍씨; 22 June 1766 – 9 June 1779)
  • Concubine Hwa of the Namwon Yun clan (화빈 윤씨; 19 May 1765 – 1 February 1824)

Ancestry

Ancestors of Jeongjo of Joseon
King Hyeonjong
King Sukjong
Queen Myeongseong of the Cheongpung Kim clan
King Yeongjo
Choe Hyo-won
Royal Noble Consort Suk of the Haeju Choe clan
Lady Hong of the Namyang Hong clan
Crown Prince Sado
Yi Yeong-im
Yi Yu-beon
Royal Noble Consort Yeong of the Jeonui Yi clan
Kim Woo-jung
Lady Kim of the Hanyang Kim clan
Lady Yi of the Jeonju Yi clan
Yi San, King Jeongjo
Hong Joong-ki
Hong Hyeon-bo
Lady Yi of the Jeonju Yi clan
Hong Bong-han
Lady Im of the Pungcheon Im clan
Lady Hyegyŏng of the Pungsan Hong clan
Lady Yi of the Hansan Yi clan

Notes

  1. All of Jeongjo's original portraits were destroyed during the 1954 fire in Busan.[1]
  2. Or Yi Seong (이성); pronunciation changed in 1796.
  3. Geollyung (Qianlong) (건륭; 乾隆): 1776–1795
    Gagyeong (Jiaqing) (가경; 嘉慶): 1796–1800
  4. The posthumous name bestowed by China was notably omitted as a sign of the country's "independence".
  5. Conferred in 1800 and 1899, respectively.
  6. In the Korean calendar (lunisolar), he was born on the 22nd day of the 9th lunar month and died on the 28th day of the 6th lunar month.
  7. Crown Prince Sado was honoured as Jangjo (장조) in 1899, during Emperor Gwangmu's third year of reign.
  8. Died in utero as a result of the mother's death during the last month of pregnancy.

References

  1. 박상현 (5 February 2019). 화령전 정조 초상화, 전통화법에 대한 고증 부정확. Yonhap News (in Korean).
  2. ""조선 최고 성군은 세종, 인간 승리 드라마는 정조"". 주간동아 (in Korean). 7 January 2019. Retrieved 12 October 2025.
  3. 정조(正祖). Encyclopedia of Korean Culture. Retrieved 12 February 2022.
  4. 인정전 월대에서 친히 향을 전하다. 육상궁에 배알하고 창의궁에 들르다
  5. tvN STORY 티비엔 스토리 (23 February 2023). 왕실 입양 문제에 개입한 홍국영? 죽은 후에 역적으로 몰린 이유! #벌거벗은한국사 EP.44 | tvN STORY 230222 방송. Retrieved 9 May 2026 – via YouTube.
  6. Digital Korean studies (Korean site) Archived 23 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine
  7. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  8. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  9. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
  10. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  11. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  12. Dongwon Shin (18 October 2014). "Measures against Epidemics during Late 18th Century Korea: Reformation or Restoration?". Extrême-Orient Extrême-Occident (37): 91–110. doi:10.4000/EXTREMEORIENT.333. ISSN 0754-5010. Wikidata Q113053302.
  13. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 21 December 2021.
  14. "Veritable Records of Jeongjo, day 10, month 3, year 0 of Jeongjo's reign". Veritable Records of the Joseon dynasty. Retrieved 17 September 2020.
  15. Kang, Hyungwon (3 September 2022). "[Visual History of Korea] King Jeongjo the Greats formidable Hwaseong Fortress". The Korean Herald. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  16. 조선왕조실록. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  17. 금난전권(禁亂廛權) Geum Nan Jeon Kwon. Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). Retrieved 3 July 2023.
  18. 역사를 통해 경제 정책을 말한다. OhmyNews (in Korean). 9 October 2012. Retrieved 10 February 2022.
  19. National Heritage – Hwaseong Archived 30 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
  20. "Reformative King Jeongjo Was Not Fatally Poisoned". The Korea Times. 9 February 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2024.
  21. Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. 태조, 장종, 정종, 순조, 익종 황제를 소급하여 높일 묘호와 황제 칭호를 의정하여 상주하다.
  22. Jeong, Ok-ja. "정조 (正祖)". Encyclopedia of Korean Culture (in Korean). South Korea. Archived from the original on 23 January 2025. Retrieved 23 January 2025.
  23. Chung, Ah-young (13 November 2007). "Renaissance of Joseon King Jeongjo". The Korea Times. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2013.