Ottoman–Venetian wars

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Ottoman–Venetian wars
Part of Ottoman–Habsburg wars, Spanish–Ottoman wars and Ottoman wars in Europe

A Venetian squadron attempts to board the crew of an escort of Ottoman merchant ships. (Il ratto di Elena oder Battaglia navale by Jacopo Tintoretto (1588–1589); Prado)
Date25 September 1396 – 21 July 1718
(321 years, 9 months, 26 days)
Location
Eastern Mediterranean, Balkans, Greece, Italy, India[1] and Anatolia
Belligerents
Republic of Venice
Supported by
Spanish Empire[2][3]
Holy Roman Empire Portuguese Empire
Papal States
Supported by
Kingdom of France[4]
Moravian Serbia[a][5]
Serbian Despotate[6][7][8]
Commanders and leaders
See Conflicts
Strength
108,500[b][9] 290,000[c]
Casualties and losses
397,325–407,325 killed[d][10][11][12][13][14]

The Turkish–Venetian Wars[e][f][16] were a series of conflicts between the Ottoman Empire and the Republic of Venice from the 14th century to 18th century for control of the eastern Mediterranean.

Background

Since the 13th century, the Serenissima had controlled a vast maritime empire in the Levantine Mediterranean, the Stato da Mar, established partly at the expense of the possessions of the Byzantine Empire.[17][18][19][20]

In 1415, the Turkish fleet attacked Negroponte. In response, Venice equipped 10 galleys under the command of Pietro Loredan. On May 27, 1416, in the Dardanelles Strait near Gallipoli, Loredan captured the Turkish fleet. In 1421, after the Venetians captured Thessaloniki, Ottomans declared war on Republic of Venice. The war between Venice and Milan, which began in 1426, forced the republic to fight on two fronts. As a result, in 1430 Venice lost Thessaloniki, and a year later, in 1431, concluded peace with the Turks in Adrianople. However, the Venetians were granted the right to freely move and trade in Turkish territory.[21][22]

Conflicts

The First War of 1463–1479

The First War with the Ottomans began on July 28, 1463, with the aim of recapturing the Morea, which had been conquered by the Turks. The Holy See occasionally sided with Republic of Venice. The war was unsuccessful, and on January 25, 1479, Giovanni Dario signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans in Istanbul. As a result of the war, Republic of Venice lost Negroponte, Lemnos, and strongholds in the Morea and Epirus. In addition, the republic had to pay the Turks compensation of 100,000 ducats and pay 10,000 ducats annually for the right to trade in Turkish territory.[23][24][25][26]

The Martyrdom of Marcantonio Bragadin G. Gatteri 1571

The Second War of 1499–1503

In 1499, Sultan Bayezid II, having ended an inconclusive war with the Mamluks, began the Second Ottoman-Venetian War, deciding to make the Adriatic the border between his possessions and Venice. In August, the Turks defeated the Venetian fleet at Cape Zonchio in the Ionian Sea, after which they captured the western Greek port of Lepanto , which was under Venetian control. In 1500, the Turks again defeated the Venetians at sea, capturing Modon, Koroni, and Navarino. Republic of Venice was able to attract allies in the form of the Papal States, Hungary, and Holy Roman Empire but was unable to achieve success and in 1503 concluded peace, ceding control of the entire Morea coast to the Ottoman Empire. [27][28]

The Third War of 1537–1540

Defeat in another war with the Ottomans cost Venice the Aegean colonies of Nafplion and Monemvasia (from where the famous Malvasia wine was imported), as well as 300,000 ducats.[29] [30] Despite successful resistance during the Ottoman siege of Corfu, the Holy League led at sea by the Genoese admiral Andrea Doria lost the Battle of Preveza against Hayreddin Barbarossa. The Republic of Venice was forced to sign the surrender, also losing the Cyclades islands with the exception of Tinos and the Sporades islands.

The Fourth War of 1570–1573

In 1570, the Ottomans besieged Cyprus, starting the Cyprus War. With the support of Pope Pius V, Spain, Venice, Republic of Genoa, Sicily, Naples, and Austria formed a fleet. However, the Turks succeeded in capturing Cyprus in 1571. The Venetian commander, Marco Antonio Bragadin, who brought the keys to the city to the Ottomans, was dragged through the city and then flayed alive. Three hundred people who came with him were beheaded.[28]

The Battle of Zonchio by an unknown Venetian artist (British Museum)

Reacting to the Turkish threat, the Christian world established the Holy League in Rome in May 1571, comprising Venice, Spain, and the Papal States. Under the overall command of Don Juan of Austria, half-brother of King Philip II of Spain, Christian and Turkish squadrons clashed on October 7, 1571, in the Gulf of Corinth, near the port of Lepanto. The Venetian fleet was commanded by Sebastiano Venier. The Christian fleet at Lepanto consisted of 207 galleys, 6 galleasses, and 30 other ships. They carried 740 cannons and 84,420 men.[31] The Ottomans had 242 ships, they had the advantage in numbers, the Christians in artillery. The battle began around 12 o'clock simultaneously on three fronts. As a result, the Turks suffered a defeat, losing 30,000 men killed and another 8,000 captured. The Christians lost 8,000 men. 113 Turkish galleys were sunk and another 117 captured, while the Christians lost only 12 galleys. This victory made a huge impression on Europe, demonstrating that the hitherto invincible Turks could be defeated.[28][32]

However in May 1572, Pope Pius V died, and the Christian alliance collapsed, while the Turks built a new fleet. Abandoned by its allies, Venice was forced to accept the peace terms offered by the Ottomans. Under the terms of the peace treaty of March 3, 1573, Venice renounced all claims to Cyprus and pledged to pay the Sultan 300,000 ducats for three years.[33] The Turkish ambassador to Venice described the Battle of Lepanto as follows :

"There is a profound difference between your defeat and ours. By capturing Cyprus far from you, we cut off your hand. By defeating our fleet, you shave off our beard. A severed hand will never grow back, and a new beard will grow even thicker"[34]

The Fifth War of 1645–1669

After its defeat in the Cyprus War, Venice sought to maintain good relations with the Ottoman Empire. But in early October 1644 , the Knights of the Order of St. John captured a Turkish ship carrying the Qadi of Mecca, the former chief black eunuch of the Sultan's harem, Sünbül Agha, approximately 30 of the Sultan's concubines, and a number of other high-ranking pilgrims. The Ottomans, learning of the ship's fate, decided to take revenge. Thus began the Cretan War.

In 1648, the Turks invaded Crete and besieged its capital, Candia , for 25 years. Realizing the inevitability of defeat, Venice appealed to all Christian countries for help, emphasizing that not only the future of the Venetian colony hung in the balance, but the security of the entire Christian world, since the loss of Crete would mean the loss of half the Mediterranean. Help arrived too late, and Venice lost Candia in 1669. Francesco Morosini, commander of the Venetian fleet, freely evacuated the surviving defenders of Candia in exchange for capitulation.[35][36] This war cost Venice approximately 150 million ducats. The expression "esser incandio" (to be in Candia) appeared in the Venetian dialect, denoting the extreme degree of despair or ruin.[37]

The Sixth War of 1684–1699

On January 19, 1684, the Republic of Venice joined the Holy League, founded by Pope Innocent XI to assist Emperor Leopold I in the Great Turkish War. Thus began the Morean War for Venice. In July 1684, Francesco Morosini led the Holy League fleet and captured the island of Santa Maura and the fortress of Preveza on the mainland. In the summer of 1685, Holy League troops captured the former Venetian port of Coron and most of the Morea. In 1687, Lepanto, Patras, Corinth, and Athens were captured, the shelling of which blew up the Parthenon, in which the Turks had set up a gunpowder magazine. In March 1688, Morosini was elected Doge in absentia and continued his conquests until his death in January 1694. The Venetians managed to defeat the Ottoman fleet at Mytilene, capturing Monemvasia, Avlona, Salamis, Hydra, and Spetses. In September 1694, the new Venetian commander-in-chief, Antonio Zeno, captured the island of Chios, but in February 1695, the Turks inflicted a severe defeat on the Venetians at sea, forcing them to abandon the island. For the loss of Chios, Zeno was dismissed from his post, arrested, and died in prison two years later. The Venetians subsequently prevented the Turkish landing in Argolis and won several victories at sea. Meanwhile, Emperor Leopold I decided to make peace with the Ottoman Empire, seeking a free hand in the looming struggle for the Spanish succession. Under the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699, Venice retained the Morea but was forced to return Attica to the Turks. The temporary successes in the fight against the Turks, which allowed Venice to recapture the Morea, did not fundamentally change the overall situation.[38]

The Seventh War of 1714–1718

Doge Francesco Morosini of Peloponnese offers the reconquered Morea to Venice. Doge's Palace - Venice

On December 9, 1714, Ottoman Empire declared war on Republic of Venice. Thus began the Second Morean War, the last in a series of Turkish–Venetian wars. Venice appealed to European powers for help, but received only a dozen galleys from the Pope, the Grand Duke of Tuscany, and the Order of Malta. In 1715, the Turks recaptured the Morea in just two months. However, in Dalmatia , the Venetians, with the help of militias from local towns and the Morlachs, were able to repel Turkish attacks. In 1716, Venice's position improved somewhat thanks to the entry of Austria into the war, fearing that the Turkish seizure of the Ionian Islands and Dalmatia would jeopardize Austrian possessions in Croatia and Italy (Naples). On August 5, the renowned commander Prince Eugene of Savoy routed the Grand Vizier's army at Peterwardein , to some extent repeating the "bloodbath" at Zenta 20 years earlier. In a joint effort, the Austrians and Venetians prevented the Turks from capturing Corfu in the summer of that same year, 1716, and then, taking advantage of the respite, with the assistance of the Spanish fleet, captured Santa Mavra and Butrint, towns on the coast of Epirus opposite Corfu, without encountering resistance there.[39] In 1717, the Venetians were generally successful at sea, defeating the Turks at Imbros and drawing the battle at Cerigo (also known as the Battle of Matapan).[40] On land, still acting together with the Austrians, the Venetians occupied Preveza and Vonitsa in October.[41]

The Austrians, on the brink of war with the Spanish King Philip V of Spain, were in a hurry to end the war with Ottoman Empire, without much regard for the interests of their ally. In May 1718, peace negotiations began in Passarowitz (Požarevac), mediated by England and Holland. The Venetian commissioner, Carlo Ruzzini, vainly sought the return of the Morea, Suda, and Spinalonga to the Republic , or at least the expansion of Venetian possessions in Albania south to Scutari and Dulcigno. Peace was concluded on July 21. Venice retained a number of cities conquered in Dalmatia, Herzegovina, and Albania, along with the adjacent territory within a league of the city, as well as Butrinto, Preveza, and Vonitsa, but not the surrounding territories. In addition, the Turks returned the island of Kythira to the Republic.[42][43][44] The Ionian Islands and Corfu remained with Venice. Thus, Venice was finally driven out of the Aegean Sea. By the time the Peace of Passarowitz was signed, both sides were extremely exhausted and posed virtually no threat to each other's interests.[45][46]

Notes

  1. Vassal state of the Ottoman Empire
  2. Total strength of all the wars
  3. Total strength of all the wars
  4. Total casualties of both sides
  5. also called as Ottoman–Venetian wars[15]
  6. Italian: Guerre turco-veneziane; Russian: Турецко-венецианские войны; French: Guerres vénéto-ottomanes; Catalan: Guerres turco-venecianes; Turkish: Osmanlı-Venedik savaşları; Spanish: Guerras turco-venecianas; Arabic: الحروب العثمانية البندقية; German: Osmanisch-Venezianische Kriege

References

  1. Toynbee 1951, p. 535.
  2. Shaw 1976, pp. 118.
  3. Fernández Duro 1895, pp. 118.
  4. Aksin Somel 2010, pp. 39.
  5. Madgearu, Alexandru (2009). Gordon, Martin (ed.). The Wars of the Balkan Peninsula: Their Medieval Origins. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press. p. 90. ISBN 978-0-8108-5846-6.
  6. Madgearu 2008, pp. 90.
  7. Buc 2020.
  8. Ivanović 2019.
  9. John F. Guilmartin (1974), p. 253–255
  10. Mertzios Mnimia tis Makedonikis Historias Thessaloniki,1947 p.44
  11. Clodfelter, M. (2008). War and Armed Conflict: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Casualty and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (3rd edition). McFarland. p. 96.
  12. William Oliver Stevens and Allan F. Westcott, A History of the Sea, 1920, p. 107.
  13. Zuhuri Danişment, History of the Ottoman Empire, Volume X, p. 21
  14. İsmail Hami Danişment, Annotated Chronology of Ottoman History, Volume III, p.439
  15. Ágoston, Gábor (2023-09-12). The Last Muslim Conquest: The Ottoman Empire and Its Wars in Europe. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-20539-7.
  16. George 2006, p. 575–576.
  17. Storia 2002, pp. 201.
  18. Diehl 2004, pp. 112.
  19. Diehl 2004, pp. 113–114.
  20. Finkel 2006, pp. 200.
  21. Kinross 1979, p. 95.
  22. Hocquet 2006, p. 114.
  23. "Cyprus Archived 2008-06-22 at the Wayback Machine, Encyclopædia Britannica, accessed May 2007.
  24. Hocquet 2006, p. 115–116.
  25. Delumeau 2006, p. 22–27.
  26. Toynbee 1951, p. 149–150.
  27. Eggenberger 2012, pp. 237.
  28. Bec 2002, p. 102.
  29. Merriman 1944, p. 224.
  30. George 2006, pp. 576.
  31. Delumeau 2006, p. 277–278.
  32. Kinross 1979, p. 288–294.
  33. Bec 2002, p. 103.
  34. Kinross 1979, p. 293–294.
  35. Bec 2002, p. 123–124.
  36. Garrett 2001, p. 68–69.
  37. Zwingle, Erla. Venedig. - National Geographic De, 2002. p.37
  38. Bec 2002, p. 124.
  39. Galibert 1847, p. 443.
  40. Galibert 1847, p. 443–444.
  41. Bernardy, Amy A. (1902). L'Ultima guerra turco-veneziana (MDCCXIV–MDCCXVIII) (in Italian). Firenze: Tip. G. Civelli. p. 49.
  42. Galibert 1847, p. 445.
  43. Norwich, John Julius (2009). History of Venice (in Russian). Moscow: AST. pp. 773–774. ISBN 978-5-17-057153-6.
  44. Galibert, Léon (1854). Histoire de la république de Venise (in French). Paris: Furne. p. 445. Archived from the original on 2018-02-06.
  45. Bec 2002, p. 131.
  46. Garrett 2001, p. 69–70.

Bibliography

  • Storia (2002). Storia di Venezia (in Italian). Treccani.
  • Diehl, Charles (2004). La Repubblica di Venezia (in Italian). Rome: Newton & Compton. ISBN 88-541-0022-6.
  • Finkel, Caroline (2006). Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923. London: John Murray. ISBN 978-0-7195-6112-2.