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Draft:Graphene Electronic Tattoos

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  • Comment: Please remove all inline external links from body text; convert to citations where relevant. DoubleGrazing (talk) 06:10, 25 October 2023 (UTC)
  • Comment: This still suffers from promotional tone, with peacock words like "unique", "exceptional", "remarkable", etc. – and that's just in the first half of the opening paragraph!
    Also, the referencing is quite sparse, with entire paragraphs and sections even unreferenced or with only a single citation. Does the author mean to say that eg. the 'General Electrophysiology' section is all supported by the one citation at the beginning of it? DoubleGrazing (talk) 06:10, 25 October 2023 (UTC)
  • Comment: The draft reads like a collection of related facts, presented in an almost-but-not-quite logical order with few cohesive ties. There's a lot of jargon and not much context, and (worst of all) there seems to be quite a bit of close paraphrasing, carried out in a sloppy manner.
    Compare, for instance, the source text

    With graphene available from commercial sources, the whole protocol consumes ~3 h of labor and does not require highly trained personnel. The protocol described in this work can be readily replicated in simple laboratories, including high school facilities. (source)

    with the draft text

    Considering that graphene is now available from commercial sources, and the fabrication process takes less than three hours of labor, and no highly trained personnel, the process can easily be readily replicated in simple laboratories, including high school facilities.

    bonadea contributions talk 11:42, 11 May 2023 (UTC)


Photograph of a Graphene Electronic Tattoo placed on human skin (wrist).

Graphene Electronic Tattoos (GETs) are a class of wearable bioelectronic devices that use monolayer graphene as the conductive sensing element. They were first reported in 2017[1] and have since been investigated for electrophysiological recording, physiological monitoring, and wearable biochemical sensing. They are designed to conform closely to the skin and have been investigated for physiological monitoring and biosensing applications. GETs are one type of graphene-based wearable electronics. Unlike many graphene wearables that incorporate graphene flakes or composites into polymer matrices, GETs typically use continuous monolayer graphene transferred onto an ultrathin polymer support.[2] The conductive graphene layer is typically synthesized by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and transferred onto an ultrathin polymer support, most commonly poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA). The graphene layer is less than 1 nm thick, while the supporting polymer layer is typically a ~200-400 nm thick. Owing to their low thickness, flexibility, optical transparency, and intimate contact with the skin through Van der Waals forces, GETs can maintain stable electrode-skin interfaces without the use of conductive gels or adhesives. These devices have been investigated for recording a variety of physiological signals[1], including electrocardiography (ECG), electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), electrooculography (EOG), bioimpedance, skin temperature, and skin hydration.

Fabrication and application

The fabrication of graphene electronic tattoos (GETs) typically begins with the synthesis of monolayer graphene by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) on copper foil[3]. After growth, the graphene is supported with a thin polymer layer, most commonly poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), while the copper substrate is removed by chemical etching[4]. The graphene/polymer film is subsequently transferred onto commercially available temporary tattoo paper, where it can be patterned into the desired geometry using mechanical cutting or other patterning techniques, requiring less than three hours and easily reproducible.[2]

Application to the skin is performed using a water-transfer process similar to that used for commercial temporary tattoos[5]. After transfer, the supporting paper is removed, leaving the ultrathin graphene film conformally attached to the skin through van der Waals interactions without the use of conductive gels or adhesives. The process is variable and alternative supporting polymers, transfer methods, and patterning approaches can be used[6].

Properties

GETs are characterized by their atomic thickness, optical transparency, flexibility, and ability to conform closely to the surface of the skin.[1] Because of their intimate contact with the skin, they have been reported to reduce motion-related artifacts[7] commonly observed in conventional gel-based electrodes while maintaining stable electrical interfaces during extended wear. Their ultrathin structure also allows them to follow skin deformation with minimal mechanical constraint.

Subsequent developments[8] have addressed several limitations reported for early monolayer graphene electronic tattoos, including sensitivity to sweat accumulation, electrical variability, and mechanical robustness. Approaches reported in the literature include the incorporation of microscale perforations to improve sweat permeability and the use of few-layer graphene to reduce sheet resistance and improve electrical uniformity[8]. Few-layer graphene electronic tattoos have also been investigated as flexible resistive heaters in addition to physiological sensing[8].

Significant applications

Electrophysiological monitoring

The GETs have been investigated for a variety of non-invasive electrophysiological measurements. Owing to their conformal contact with the skin and stable electrode-skin interface, they have been used to record bioelectric signals from the brain, muscles, heart, and eyes. Most reported systems employ differential signal acquisition using two or more GET electrodes together with a reference electrode, although electrode configurations vary depending on the physiological signal being measured. Major electrophysiological applications of GETs include:

  1. Electroencephalography (EEG) for monitoring brain activity.
  2. Electromyography (EMG) for recording skeletal muscle activity.
  3. Electrocardiography (ECG) for monitoring cardiac electrical activity.
  4. Electrooculography (EOG) for measuring eye movements.
  5. Electrodermal activity (EDA) for monitoring sympathetic nervous system activity.
  6. Noninvasive Cuffless Blood Pressure (BP) using electrical bioimpedance measurements

The individual applications are described below.

Electroencephalography

Electroencephalography or EEG has been demonstrated using graphene electronic tattoos placed on the forehead to record brain activity. The reference electrode is typically positioned behind the earlobe or another electrically neutral location near the skull.

Electromyography

Electromyography or EMG has been demonstrated for recording electrical activity from skeletal muscles using differential measurements. Muscle contractions generate electrical potentials that are detected by graphene electronic tattoos placed over the target muscle, while the reference electrode is typically positioned near a bony region (e.g., elbow). Reported applications include muscle activity monitoring, gesture recognition, and human-machine interfaces,.

Electrocardiography

Electrocardiography or ECG has been demonstrated using graphene electronic tattoos placed on the chest or forearms to record cardiac electrical activity. At least two recording GETs are typically used together with a reference electrode, and measurements are acquired in differential mode. Continuous ECG monitoring has been demonstrated during ambulatory activities.

Electrooculography

Electrooculography or EOG has been demonstrated using graphene electronic tattoos placed above, below, and beside the eyes to record electrical potentials generated by eye movements. The recorded signals can be used to determine gaze direction and have been applied to eye tracking, human-computer interaction, and robotic control. The optical transparency of graphene enables unobtrusive placement around the eyes, making the electrodes less visually noticeable than conventional opaque electrodes.[9]

Electrodermal Activity

Electrodermal activity or EDA has been demonstrated using graphene electronic tattoos placed on the palm or fingertip to continuously measure changes in skin conductance associated with sympathetic nervous system activity.[10] The high density of eccrine sweat glands in the palm and fingertips makes such locations particularly sensitive for EDA measurements. Studies have demonstrated continuous ambulatory monitoring during daily activities, including studying, exercise, driving, eating, and sleeping. Compared with conventional electrodes, GETs show comparable physiological event detection while improving long-term wearability and reducing motion-related signal degradation. GETs have been reported to work even underwater. [11]

Blood Pressure

Continuous cuffless blood pressure monitoring has emerged as one of the principal applications of graphene electronic tattoos. Unlike conventional sphygmomanometers, which rely on intermittent measurements using an inflatable cuff, graphene electronic tattoos enable continuous, non-invasive monitoring of systolic and diastolic BP during daily activities[12]. Most reported systems employ electrical bioimpedance measurements[13], in which a low-amplitude alternating current is injected through the skin while changes in tissue impedance associated with arterial pulsation are continuously recorded. Arrays of graphene electronic tattoos are positioned over the radial and ulnar arteries at the wrist, allowing pulsatile blood volume changes to be measured with high temporal resolution.[12] The recorded bioimpedance waveforms are combined with machine learning algorithms that extract characteristic features and estimate systolic and diastolic blood pressure. This approach enables continuous blood pressure tracking without interrupting normal activities. Unlike pulse transit time based methods, bioimpedance directly measures local physiological changes associated with arterial blood flow[12]. The GET-based systems meet IEEE Grade A performance criteria for wearable cuffless blood pressure monitoring.[14] Their ultrathin, conformal interface enables continuous measurements under conditions that challenge conventional electrodes, including perspiration, body motion, prolonged use, and exposure to water. Continuous blood pressure monitoring has been proposed for applications including hypertension management, cardiovascular disease monitoring, and personalized healthcare.

Future directions

Current research on graphene electronic tattoos has expanded toward other two-dimensional (2D) materials and heterostructures with electronic, optoelectronic, and sensing properties that are not available in graphene alone. Skin-mounted devices based on materials including molybdenum disulfide (MoS2)[15], platinum diselenide (PtSe2)[16], and platinum ditelluride (PtTe2)[16] have been reported for applications including field-effect transistors, strain sensing, and electrophysiological monitoring. These developments extend the concept of atomically thin electronic tattoos beyond graphene and broaden the range of electrical functions that can be integrated into skin-interfacing devices[17].

Future research has also explored multilayer heterostructures that combine different two-dimensional materials within a single platform to integrate sensing, signal amplification, processing, and communication. Such approaches have been proposed as a route toward multifunctional wearable systems capable of simultaneously monitoring multiple physiological signals while maintaining the mechanical properties associated with atomically thin materials[18].

References

  1. Kabiri Ameri, Shideh; Ho, Rebecca; Jang, Hongwoo; Tao, Li; Wang, Youhua; Wang, Liu; Schnyer, David M.; Akinwande, Deji; Lu, Nanshu (2017-08-22). "Graphene Electronic Tattoo Sensors". ACS Nano. 11 (8): 7634–7641. Bibcode:2017ACSNa..11.7634K. doi:10.1021/acsnano.7b02182. ISSN 1936-0851. PMID 28719739.
  2. Kireev, Dmitry; Ameri, Shideh Kabiri; Nederveld, Alena; Kampfe, Jameson; Jang, Hongwoo; Lu, Nanshu; Akinwande, Deji (May 2021). "Fabrication, characterization and applications of graphene electronic tattoos". Nature Protocols. 16 (5): 2395–2417. doi:10.1038/s41596-020-00489-8. ISSN 1750-2799. PMID 33846631. S2CID 233223214.
  3. Yan, Zheng; Lin, Jian; Peng, Zhiwei; Sun, Zhengzong; Zhu, Yu; Li, Lei; Xiang, Changsheng; Samuel, E. Loïc; Kittrell, Carter; Tour, James M. (2012-10-23). "Toward the Synthesis of Wafer-Scale Single-Crystal Graphene on Copper Foils". ACS Nano. 6 (10): 9110–9117. Bibcode:2012ACSNa...6.9110Y. doi:10.1021/nn303352k. ISSN 1936-0851. PMID 22966902.
  4. Kang, Junmo; Shin, Dolly; Bae, Sukang; Hong, Byung Hee (2012). "Graphene transfer: key for applications". Nanoscale. 4 (18): 5527–5537. Bibcode:2012Nanos...4.5527K. doi:10.1039/c2nr31317k. ISSN 2040-3364. PMID 22864991.
  5. Kim, Dae-Hyeong; Lu, Nanshu; Ma, Rui; Kim, Yun-Soung; Kim, Rak-Hwan; Wang, Shuodao; Wu, Jian; Won, Sang Min; Tao, Hu; Islam, Ahmad; Yu, Ki Jun; Kim, Tae-il; Chowdhury, Raeed; Ying, Ming; Xu, Lizhi (2011-08-12). "Epidermal Electronics". Science. 333 (6044): 838–843. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..838K. doi:10.1126/science.1206157. ISSN 0036-8075. OSTI 1875151. PMID 21836009. Archived from the original on 2023-05-14.
  6. Yang, Shixuan; Chen, Ying-Chen; Nicolini, Luke; Pasupathy, Praveenkumar; Sacks, Jacob; Su, Becky; Yang, Russell; Sanchez, Daniel; Chang, Yao-Feng; Wang, Pulin; Schnyer, David; Neikirk, Dean; Lu, Nanshu (November 2015). ""Cut-and-Paste" Manufacture of Multiparametric Epidermal Sensor Systems". Advanced Materials. 27 (41): 6423–6430. Bibcode:2015AdM....27.6423Y. doi:10.1002/adma.201502386. ISSN 0935-9648. PMID 26398335.
  7. Yin, Junyi; Wang, Shaolei; Tat, Trinny; Chen, Jun (July 2024). "Motion artefact management for soft bioelectronics". Nature Reviews Bioengineering. 2 (7): 541–558. doi:10.1038/s44222-024-00175-4. ISSN 2731-6092. PMC 13012649. PMID 41884090.
  8. Kireev, Dmitry; Kampfe, Jameson; Hall, Alena; Akinwande, Deji (2022-07-12). "Graphene electronic tattoos 2.0 with enhanced performance, breathability and robustness". npj 2D Materials and Applications. 6 (1): 46. doi:10.1038/s41699-022-00324-6. ISSN 2397-7132.
  9. Ameri, Shideh Kabiri; Kim, Myungsoo; Kuang, Irene Agnes; Perera, Withanage K.; Alshiekh, Mohammed; Jeong, Hyoyoung; Topcu, Ufuk; Akinwande, Deji; Lu, Nanshu (2018-07-24). "Imperceptible electrooculography graphene sensor system for human–robot interface". npj 2D Materials and Applications. 2 (1) 19: 1–7. doi:10.1038/s41699-018-0064-4. ISSN 2397-7132. S2CID 53074615.
  10. Jang, Hongwoo; Sel, Kaan; Kim, Eunbin; Kim, Sangjun; Yang, Xiangxing; Kang, Seungmin; Ha, Kyoung-Ho; Wang, Rebecca; Rao, Yifan; Jafari, Roozbeh; Lu, Nanshu (2022-11-03). "Graphene e-tattoos for unobstructive ambulatory electrodermal activity sensing on the palm enabled by heterogeneous serpentine ribbons". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 6604. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13.6604J. doi:10.1038/s41467-022-34406-2. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 9633646. PMID 36329038.
  11. Liu, Ning; Rossi, Wendy; Kireev, Dmitry; Akinwande, Deji (2025-07-08). "Electrophysiological Sensing with Graphene Electronic Tattoos for Saline and Underwater Environments". ACS Applied Electronic Materials. 7 (13): 5868–5875. Bibcode:2025AAEM....7.5868L. doi:10.1021/acsaelm.5c00310. ISSN 2637-6113.
  12. Kireev, Dmitry; Sel, Kaan; Ibrahim, Bassem; Kumar, Neelotpala; Akbari, Ali; Jafari, Roozbeh; Akinwande, Deji (August 2022). "Continuous cuffless monitoring of arterial blood pressure via graphene bioimpedance tattoos". Nature Nanotechnology. 17 (8): 864–870. Bibcode:2022NatNa..17..864K. doi:10.1038/s41565-022-01145-w. ISSN 1748-3395. PMID 35725927. S2CID 249873611.
  13. Sel, Kaan; Osman, Deen; Jafari, Roozbeh (2021). "Non-Invasive Cardiac and Respiratory Activity Assessment From Various Human Body Locations Using Bioimpedance". IEEE Open Journal of Engineering in Medicine and Biology. 2: 210–217. Bibcode:2021IOJEM...2..210S. doi:10.1109/OJEMB.2021.3085482. ISSN 2644-1276. PMC 8388562. PMID 34458855.
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  15. Yan, Zhuocheng; Xu, Dong; Lin, Zhaoyang; Wang, Peiqi; Cao, Bocheng; Ren, Huaying; Song, Frank; Wan, Chengzhang; Wang, Laiyuan; Zhou, Jingxuan; Zhao, Xun; Chen, Jun; Huang, Yu; Duan, Xiangfeng (2022-02-25). "Highly stretchable van der Waals thin films for adaptable and breathable electronic membranes". Science. 375 (6583): 852–859. Bibcode:2022Sci...375..852Y. doi:10.1126/science.abl8941. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 35201882. S2CID 247107570.
  16. Kireev, Dmitry; Okogbue, Emmanuel; Jayanth, Rt; Ko, Tae-Jun; Jung, Yeonwoong; Akinwande, Deji (2021-02-23). "Multipurpose and Reusable Ultrathin Electronic Tattoos Based on PtSe 2 and PtTe 2". ACS Nano. 15 (2): 2800–2811. arXiv:2010.07534. Bibcode:2021ACSNa..15.2800K. doi:10.1021/acsnano.0c08689. ISSN 1936-0851. PMID 33470791. S2CID 222378427.
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