Micronesian myzomela

☆ Save On Wikipedia ↗
Micronesian myzomela
M. r. saffordi, Saipan
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Meliphagidae
Genus: Myzomela
Species:
M. rubratra
Binomial name
Myzomela rubratra
(Lesson, 1827)
Synonyms[2]

The Micronesian myzomela (Myzomela rubratra), also known as the micronesian honeyeater, is a species of honeyeater.

Taxonomy

The Micronesian myzomela was first formally described by René Lesson in 1827 as Cinnyris rubrater.[3] In 1835 it was designated Certhia cardinalis[4] and moved a year later to Cinnyris cardinalis by Heinrich von Kittlitz.[5] In 1850, Charles Lucien Bonaparte became the first to place it in its current genus, Myzomela, assigning it the specific epithet sanguinolenta[6] (from Latin sanguis, meaning "blood".)[7] It was then renamed by Gustav Hartlaub, first in 1852 as M. rubrater,[8] then in 1854 as M. rubratra,[9] which it has kept since.[10] In 1932, Ernst Mayr deemed it conspecific with the cardinal myzomela,[11] however it is now recognized by most major authorities as its own species.[10] Its specific epithet, rubratra, is a compound of Latin rubra and atra, meaning "red" and "black" respectively.[12] 7 subspecies of the Micronesian myzomela are recognized.[10]

  • M. r. rubratra (Lesson, 1827)—The nominate subspecies. Found on Kosrae of the Caroline Islands. The adult male's body is almost entirely scarlet or scarlet-red, excluding the thighs and the lores (the area between the eye and nostrils), which are black. The adult female's plumage is similar, although she is smaller in size, and her coloring is duller. The juvenile of both sexes are reminiscent of the adults, although it is duller and of a lighter tone in comparision, and its coloring is not as vivid.[13]
  • M. r. dichromata Wetmore, 1919—Found on Pohnpei of the Caroline Islands. The adult male strongly resembles that of the nominate subspecies, except that the black markings on his lores and below the eye are more substantial. and the tips of his colored feathers are brighter. The adult female is similar to the nominate, though the extent of her red plumage is greatly reduced. Her chin, throat, and the underside of her tail are reddish. The rest of her body is colored varying shades of brownish-gray, occasionally with reddish patches. The juvenile male resembles the adult, except that his scarlet coloring is less vivid and is thinner on his rump, forehead, underparts, and the base of his tail. The red coloring is usually absent from his neck and the top of his head. The juvenile female is also like the adult, but her scarlet coloring is thinner and only visible on her back, rump, underpartds, and the base of her tail.[14] Its name comes from Latin dichromata, meaning two-colored.[15]
  • M. r. major Bonaparte, 1854—Found on Chuuk Lagoon of the Caroline Islands. Both sexes look similar to nominate. The adult male's feathers are lighter on the tips. The adult female's underparts are colored a brighter scarlet-red. The juvenile male looks similar to the adult female, except the feathers on his head and neck have less scarlet coloring on the tips. The juvenile female resembles the nominate's juvenile female, except that her upperparts are grayer and her underparts are darker.[16] Its name comes from Latin major, meaning greater or larger.[15]
  • M. r. kurodai Momiyama, 1922—Found on Yap of the Caroline Islands. The adult male resembles the adult male M. r. saffordi, although his leg is shorter, and his plumage is less orange-hued. The adult female's upperparts are a dark green-brown. Her underparts are paler but otherwise similar, though her breast and abdomen may be yellow-gray. Her head, rump, and lower back, along with her entire frontside, are all tinged scarlet-red.[17] It is named after Nagamichi Kuroda, a Japanese ornithologist.[15]
  • M. r. kobayashii Momiyama, 1922—Found on the islands of Palau.[15] The adult male resembles nominate; however he is smaller and the scarlet coloring on his body is darker, more so than that of any other subspecies. The adult female resembles the female M. r. dichromata, although her abdomen, the underside of her tail feathers, and her "armpits" (axillary feathers) are rust-gray. Unlike all other subspecies, the top of her head is only partly colored red. The juvenile male resembles the adult except for his lighter and scantier scarlet-red coloring. His wings and tail are green-brown, and the underside of his tail is off-gray. The juvenile female is like the adult, just that her scarlet-red coloring is paler and her underparts are tinted red.[18] It is named after Keisuke Kobayashi, Sr, a Japanese ornithologist and oologist.[15]
  • M. r. asuncionis Salomonsen, 1966—Found from Anatahan to Asuncion of the Northern Mariana Islands. All ages and genders are visually identical to saffordi.[15]
  • M. r. saffordi Wetmore, 1917—Found on the southern islands of the Northern Mariana Islands, namely Rota, Aguiguan, Tinian, and Saipan. Formerly found on Guam, before its extinction there.[15] Both sexes resemble nominate, with minor differences. The adult male is slightly smaller and his scarlet-red coloring is more orange. Unlike the other subspecies, the male saffordi's wings and tail are tinted olive. The adult female is also smaller and paler in color. Her upperparts are dark green-gray occasionally mottled with scarlet, and the underside of her tail and her abdomen are red-gray. She can be differentiated from other subspecies by her scarlet-tipped feathers on the top of her head, and the dark olive coloring on the edges of her tail feathers.[19] It is named after William Edwin Safford, a botanist.[15]

Description

The Micronesian myzomela is a small honeyeater measuring 13 cm in length.[20] The sexes differ in size and appearance: The adult male weighs 15 g (range 12.7–18 g)[21] and has a 72 mm wing chord, a 13 mm bill, a 55 mm tail, and a 21 mm tarsus,[22] and the adult female is smaller, weighing 12.7 g (range 10.4–15 g)[21] and with a wing chord measuring 66 mm, a 11 mm bill, a 55 mm tail, and a 20 mm tarsus.[22] In both sexes and at all ages, the bill is distinctly curved downwards. It is colored brown with a yellow base in juveniles, darkening with age, becoming completely black in adults. Similarly, the gape also darkens with age, starting bright yellow and becoming black in adults. The tongue and interior of the mouth are bright yellow. Its iris is dark brown, and its toes and tarsi are scaly and dark brown, with the undersides of the feet being dull yellow.[23]

The female has dusky brown tail and wing feathers fringed with olive, and a predominantly black or brown body with scarlet-red patches. The male is similar, though his patches are more vermilion and he lacks any brown coloring. The extent and placement of the patches vary between subspecies in both sexes.[24] Juveniles of both genders are much browner compared to adults and have little to none red patches.[25]

Vocalizations

The Micronesian myzomela has a complex dawn song that differs from its vocalizations later in the day.[26] On Kosrae, the song begins before there is enough light to see the bird and lasts until it is visible (about 25 minutes); it has been described as sounding like multiple birds singing in unison. The song consists of a continuous stream of trilled whistles and phrases, which may be transcribed as "cheeky cheeky can't beat the heat," "too sweet to eat," or "she eats a pizza".[27] The dawn song on Yap and Pohnpei is similar but slower and less slurred.[26] Later in the day, the Korsae bird's song is short and highly variable, usually consisting of two slurred notes ("seee-oo SEET" or "schweer cheap-beer") and one emphatic note. The calls have been described as "rather uninteresting" but are more variable still, and include sharp "tseep!" notes that may be repeated, short buzzy calls, and rough scolds.[27]

The dawn song on the Mariana Islands is a "wheezy whistle"; on the Northern Mariana Islands it can be transcribed as "ee-zoo-zee-zoo-zee" or "zeeoo-ZEE-zoo-zee". The daytime song, most commonly heard in the early morning, is a simple and tuneful "per-mit-you".[28] On Palau, the calls are unlike those of the Mariana Islands populations and instead resemble those of the great crested flycatcher of North America; the Palau call may also be confused with that of the Micronesian starling.[28]

Distribution and habitat

The Micronesian myzomela is a permanent resident of the Caroline and Mariana islands.[29] It has not been observed moving between islands, but the short distances between some in a chain may still permit dispersal.[30] It can be found in and on the edges of forests, including secondary, Clinostigma, mangrove, and agroforest types. It also inhabits coconut plantations, coastal strand, savanna brush, villages, towns, and gardens.[31]

Behavior

With few exceptions, all honeyeaters are monogamous.[32] The Micronesian myzomela is a weak flyer, usually only travelling at most 5 meters by flight. It primarily locomotes while foraging by flying or hopping.[33]

Breeding

The Micronesian myzomela nests year-round, and likely breeds year-round as well.[34] On Pohnpei, eggs were recorded in nests from July to September. On Chuuk, eggs have been found year-round, with most nests dated to May–July and one to March. On Kosrae, a nest with nestlings was found in April. During 1983–1984, newly fledged birds were recorded on Chuuk in March, on Yap in May, and on Kosrae in July.[35] On Saipan, nest-building has been observed in February in each year from 1988 to 1993, and seven nests were found there in 2003–2004: two contained eggs, two contained nestlings, two were empty, and the seventh was occupied by a female, which prevented the nest's contents from being checked.[36] Courtship was observed on Aguiguan in May 1992, and newly fledged birds on Rota in March 1982.[35] Courtship on Aguiguian consisted of the pair walking in tandem along a sturdy branch with elevated heads, periodically switching directions so that the follower became the leader.[37] On Guam, courtship interactions was observed to take place throughout the year, at any time of day; they usually consisted of flights lasting for 20–30 seconds, where the male pursued the female along circular, vertical, or zig-zag paths, often touching wingtips. The male may utter quiet staccato notes during such flights.[38]

On Chuuk, nests are most often found near houses that had flowering plants nearby. The nests are usually built less than 4.6 meters from the ground. They are typically in small trees with thick foliage, often on the edges of wooded areas or open areas. Nests are usually composed of weed stems, bits of leaves, grasses, and coir, and lined with fine grasses. On the outside, they are on average 20 mm deep, and 50 mm wide.[39] On Guam, nests were usually placed 1.2–2.4 meters off the ground, in shrubs or trees, and more rarely 2.5–4.6 meters off the ground, on the outer branches of trees.[40] There, nests had deep cups made of grasses and rootlets, withl the outside composed of leaves, wool, cobwebs, and the like. They were 50–70 mm deep and 60–80 mm wide.[41] On Pohnpei, nests are cup-shaped, and are made up of two layers—the inner layer is composed of one material, such as dead grass, fine roots, or coir, however the exact material varies by nest. The outer layer is composed of a mix of stems, ferns, fine roots and the like. The inner and outer diameters of the nest are 65–85 mm and 43–58 mm respectively. Nests are around 20 mm deep, and measure 35–45 mm in height.[42]

These eggs are usually white and gray with dark yellow-brown speckles concentrated at the narrower tip.[43] On Chuuk, eggs are on average 18.5 by 13.6 mm. They are glossy white or light cream with reddish-brown speckling concentrated torwards the larger end.[39] On Pohnpei, eggs are white to pale creamy, with brown (sometimes with hues of yellow or red) spots on the surfaces. The subsurfaces of the eggs are pale purplish. Clutches are usually two eggs; in a sample of 13 nests, 10 had two eggs, and three had one egg.[42] On Saipan, eggs are creamy white, with two distinct rings of brown spots on either end.[44]

On Saipan, egg incubation lasts for 15–16 days, and is probably done exclusively by the female.[45] Incubation behaviors resemble that of other honeyeaters.[46] At birth, nestlings are altricial, and, until their red pin feathers erupt, resemble nestling bridled white-eyes. In one nest, nestlings were around 2 cm in length, with dark pink skin and had down on their wings and backs. By day 6–7, their eyes started to open, and the pin feathers on their backs began to erupt. Both nestlings prematurely fledged on days 13–14; one of them was returned to the nest, and fully fledged on day 15-16.[47] On Pohnpei, the female exclusively feeds the young.[48]

On Guam, a female was observed feigning injury, spreading her tail and quivering her wings, and made calls while hopping on a low-lying branch.[49][38] On Saipan, nesting adults become agitated when observed; one would feign injury, drooping one wing and fluttering close to the ground, and the other would often make scolding calls. When alone, an adult would sometimes scold while feigning injury. This behavior was only observed in adults with nestlings.[45]

Territorial behavior

On Guam, boundary disputes among males commonly escalate into mid-air chases. Once these interactions conclude, the males retreat to separate perches and resume singing or calling.[38] On Saipan, the species aggressively defended territories against conspecifics through vocal duels. However, this territoriality decreased near concentrated nectar sources like Lantana camara, where multiple individuals could forage together.[50] The male Micronesian myzomela is highly aggressive, chasing other species (especially white-eyes) away from defended flowering trees. On Pohnpei, he was observed diving at or chasing grey-brown white-eyes, Pohnpei flycatchers, and Pohnpei kingfishers. On Saipan and Aguiguan in 1988–1993, the Micronesian myzomela chased individuals and scattered flocks of the golden white-eye, bridled white-eye, and Micronesian rufous fantail. Additionally, a Micronesian starling was observed displacing a Micronesian myzomela from a perch.[51]

Foraging and diet

The Micronesian myzomela forages with its mate, following the same route every time. The male leads, and the female follows.[52] On Pohnpei, it can be found foraging throughout the forest, though it is more common near nectar sources. On Yap and Kosrae, it forages in shrubs, in savannas and small ravines, respectively.[53] On Guam, an adult (followed by a juvenile) was observed probing a morning glory, and another adult was observed probing a white flower on a shrub.[49] It was commonly found foraging around the day-blooming jasmine, feeding on nectar and insects. It was also common near coconut palms, especially when their reproductive parts were developing.[19]

On Saipan in 1988–1989, it was observed foraging in trees 20–47 (avg. 34) m high. 82.5% of these trees were canopy trees (trees that occupy the uppermost layer of foliage). Trees used during foraging included Indian coral trees, coconut palms, hibiscus trees, white leadtrees, Delonix regia, Premna serratifolia, and Aidia cochinchinensis. Bitter melon vines were also used. 92.5% of foraging time was spent in the upper strata, and the remainder in mid-strata. 90% of foraging perches were flowers, 7.5% live leaves, and 2.5% flower buds. 36% of perches were less than 0.5 cm in size, and 64% were larger.[53] Gleaning accounted for 10% of foraging behavior, with probing accounting for the remaining 90%.[54]

On Saipan in 1990–1991, it was observed foraging in trees 27–43 (avg. 35) m high.[55] 85% of foraging time was spent in the upper strata, the remainder being spent in mid-lower strata. Native forests were usually occupied during the dry season, when Indian coral trees were in bloom.[56] Additional trees used during foraging included forest wild coffee, Aidia cochinchinensis, and Cynometra ramiflora.[57] Vines on trees were also used. Tree and strata preference was noted to be similar to that of the bridled white-eye; however, unlike it, the Micronesian myzomela primarily foraged in Indian coral trees.[53] 81% of foraging perches were flowers, 14.3% live leaves, and 4.8% without a perch.[56] 35% of perches were less than 0.5 cm in size, and 65% were larger.[57] Gleaning accounted for 16.7% of foraging behavior, the remaining 83.3% being probing.[57]

On Aguiguan in May of 1992, 73.7% of foraging time was spent in the upper strata, the remainder being spent in mid-lower strata. Trees used during foraging included forest wild coffee, lebbek, Bikkia mariannensis, and Delonix regia. It was also found using Lantana camara. 68.4% of foraging perches were flowers, 15.8% live leaves, and 15.8% branches. 72.2% of perches were less than 0.5 cm in size, and 27.8% were larger. Gleaning accounted for 30% of foraging behavior, the remaining 70% being probing.[53]

The Micronesian myzomela is omnivorous, feeding on nectar and small invertebrates, mainly insects.[20] It feeds on flowers from tall-stilt mangrove, coconut palm, noni, cassava, Lantana camara, Morinda citrifolia Sonneratia alba, as well as species from the genera Clinostigma, Parinari, Musa, Hibiscus, Schefflera, Elaeocarpus, and Cyrtandra.[58] Ernst Mayr estimated that on Guam, 60% of their diet was nectar, 40% insects.[59] On Palau, both specimens acquired had vegetable matter, seeds, and small insects in their stomaches.[60]

Survival

Following the introduction of the brown tree snake on Guam, the Micronesian myzomela's population rapidly fell,[61] eventually resulting in its extinction in 1986.[62] The snake was likely introduced as a stowaway in military cargo in the late 1940s or early 1950s, with the first recorded sighting in south-central Guam in the early 1950s.[63] Ernst Mayr reported in 1945 that there were four times as many males compared to females, however in 1951 Rollin H. Baker reported there was a sex ratio of 2.5:1. Mark Jenkins reported a 1.5:1 sex ratio in 1983.[38]

On Saipan, it is very intolerant of disturbances during incubation; in a 2005 nesting study, all nests where the incubating female was disturbed failed.[45]

Conservation

The Micronesian myzomela is a least-concern species on the IUCN Red List.[1] It was known as "Egigi" or "Hibiscus bird" on Guam.[64]

See also

References

  1. BirdLife International 2024, Assessment Information.
  2. Craig & Pyle 2026, Systematics § Systematics History.
  3. Cuvier, Frédéric (1827). Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles, dans lequel on traite méthodiquement des différens êtres de la nature, considérés soit en eux-mêmes, d'après l'état actuel de nos connoissances, soit relativement à l'utilité qu'en peuvent retirer la médecine, l'agriculture, le commerce et les artes. Suivi d'une biographie des plus célèbres naturalistes ... [Dictionary of the natural sciences, in which one methodically treats of the different beings of nature, considered either in themselves, according to the current state of our knowledge, or relatively to the utility that medicine, agriculture, commerce, and the arts can derive from them. Followed by a biography of the most celebrated naturalists...] (in French). Vol. 50. Strasbourg and Paris: F. G. Levrault, Le Normant. pp. 50–51. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.42219 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  4. von Kittlitz, Heinrich (1834). "Über einige noch unbeschriebene Vögel Insel Luzon, den Carolinen und den Marianen" [On Some Undescribed Birds from the Island of Luzon, the Carolines, and the Marianas]. Mémoire Présentés à l'Académie Impériale des Sciences de Saint Pétersbourg par Divers Savans et dans ses Assemblées (in German) (2): 1–9. ISSN 1560-0106 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  5. von Kittlitz, Heinrich; Postels, Alexander (1836). Lütke, Friedrich Benjamin von (ed.). Voyage autour du monde, exécuté par ordre de Sa Majesté l'empereur Nicolas Ier, sur la corvette Le Séniavine, dans les années 1826, 1827, 1828 et 1829 / par Frédéric Lutké. Tome troisième contenant les travaux de mm. les naturalistes, rédigé par Alexandre Postels [Voyage Around the World, undertaken by order of His Majesty Emperor Nicholas I aboard the corvette *Le Séniavine*, in the years 1826, 1827, 1828, and 1829 / by Frédéric Lutké. Volume III, containing the works of the naturalists, compiled by Alexandre Postels] (in French). Vol. 3. Paris. p. 285. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.38074 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  6. Bonaparte, Charles-Lucien (1850). Conspectus generum avium [A look at the types of birds] (in Latin). Lugduni Batavorum: E.J. Brill. p. 394. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.70841 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  7. Jobling, J. A. (ed.). "The Key to Scientific Names". Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. Retrieved 2026-03-25.
  8. Hartlaub, Gustav (1852). "R. Titian Peale's Vögel der United States Exploring Expedition" [R. Titian Peale's Birds of the United States Exploring Expedition]. Archiv für Naturgeschichte (in German) (188): 109 – via Biodiversity Heritage Library.
  9. Hartlaub, Gustav (1854). "Zur Ornithologie Oceanien's" [On the Ornithology of Oceania]. Journal für Ornithologie (in German). 2 (2): 169. Bibcode:1854JOrn....2..160H. doi:10.1007/BF02006771. ISSN 1439-0361 – via Springer Nature.
  10. Lepage, Denis. "Myzomela rubratra (Micronesian Myzomela)". Avibase, the World Bird Database. Retrieved 2026-03-25.
  11. Mayr, Ernst (1932). "Birds collected during the Whitney South Sea Expedition. 18. Notes on Meliphagidae from Polynesia and the Solomon Islands". American Museum Novitates (516): 19.
  12. Craig & Pyle 2026, Systematics.
  13. Baker 1951, p. 305-306.
  14. Baker 1951, p. 307-308.
  15. Craig & Pyle 2026, Systematics § Subspecies.
  16. Baker 1951, p. 308-309.
  17. Baker 1951, p. 312.
  18. Baker 1951, p. 313-314.
  19. Baker 1951, p. 310.
  20. Higgins, Peter J.; Christidis, Les; Ford, Hugh (2020). "Micronesian Myzomela (Myzomela rubratra), version 1.0". Birds of the World. doi:10.2173/bow.micmyz1.01. ISSN 2771-3105.
  21. Craig & Pyle 2026, Plumages, Molts, and Structure § Measurements § Mass.
  22. Craig & Pyle 2026, Plumages, Molts, and Structure § Measurements § Linear Measurements.
  23. Craig & Pyle 2026, Plumages, Molts, and Structure § Bare Parts.
  24. Craig & Pyle 2026, Plumages, Molts, and Structure § Plumage § Definitive Basic Plumage.
  25. Craig & Pyle 2026, Plumages, Molts, and Structure § Plumage § Juvenile (First Basic) Plumage.
  26. Craig & Pyle 2026, Sounds and Vocal Behavior § Vocalizations § Vocal Array.
  27. Hayes, Floyd E.; Pratt, H. Douglas; Cianchini, Carlos J. (2016). "The Avifauna of Kosrae, Micronesia: History, Status, and Taxonomy". Pacific Science. 70 (1): 115. doi:10.2984/70.1.8. ISSN 0030-8870.
  28. Craig & Pyle 2026, Sounds and Vocal Behavior § Vocalizations § Geographic Variation.
  29. Craig & Pyle 2026, Distribution.
  30. Craig & Pyle 2026, Movements and Migration.
  31. Higgins, Peter; Christidis, Les; Ford, Hugh (2020). Billerman, Shawn M.; Keeney, Brooke K.; Rodewald, Paul G.; Schulenberg, Thomas S. (eds.). "Micronesian Myzomela (Myzomela rubratra)". Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.micmyz1.01. Retrieved 2026-05-05.
  32. Winkler, David W.; Billerman, Shawn M.; Lovette, Irby J. (2020). Billerman, Shawn M.; Keeney, Brooke K.; Rodewald, Paul G.; Schulenberg, Thomas S. (eds.). "Honeyeaters (Meliphagidae)". Birds of the World. Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.meliph3.01. Retrieved 2026-05-13.
  33. Craig & Pyle 2026, Behavior § Locomotion.
  34. Craig & Pyle 2026, Introduction.
  35. Craig & Pyle 2026, Breeding § Phenology.
  36. Sachtleben & Savidge 2005, pp. 79–80.
  37. Craig & Pyle 2026, Behavior § Sexual Behavior § Courtship, Copulation, and Pair Bond.
  38. Jenkins, J. Mark (1983). "The Native Forest Birds of Guam". Ornithological Monographs (31). University of California Press, for the American Ornithologists' Union: 45–46. doi:10.2307/40166770. ISSN 0078-6594. JSTOR 40166770 – via University of South Florida Digital Commons.
  39. Brandt, John H. (1962). "Nests and Eggs of the Birds of the Truk Islands". The Condor. 64 (5) 6: 433–434. doi:10.2307/1365549. ISSN 1938-5129. JSTOR 1365549 – via Oxford University Press.
  40. Craig & Pyle 2026, Breeding § Nest Site.
  41. Craig & Pyle 2026, Breeding § Nest.
  42. Yamashina, Yoshimaro (1932). "Micronesia-san Tōrui no Tamago no Shūshūbutsu ni Tsuite" ミクロネシア産鳥類の卵の蒐集物に就いて [On a Collection of Eggs of Birds from Micronesia]. Tori (in Japanese). 7 (35): 397. doi:10.3838/jjo.7.35_393. ISSN 0040-9480 – via J-STAGE.
  43. Craig & Pyle 2026, Breeding § Eggs.
  44. Sachtleben & Savidge 2005, pp. 80–81.
  45. Sachtleben & Savidge 2005, p. 83.
  46. Craig & Pyle 2026, Breeding § Incubation.
  47. Sachtleben & Savidge 2005, pp. 81–82.
  48. Baker 1951, p. 308.
  49. Stophlet, John J. (1946). "Birds of Guam". The Auk. 63 (4). American Ornithologists' Union: 540. doi:10.2307/4079755. JSTOR 4079755.
  50. Craig & Pyle 2026, Behavior § Agonistic Behavior § Territorial Behavior.
  51. Craig & Pyle 2026, Behavior § Social and Interspecific Behavior § Nonpredatory Interspecific Interactions.
  52. Marshall, Joe T. (1949). "The Endemic Avifauna of Saipan, Tinian, Guam and Palau". The Condor. 51 (5). Cooper Ornithological Club: 216. doi:10.2307/1364563. ISSN 1938-5129. JSTOR 1364563 – via Oxford University Press.
  53. Craig & Pyle 2026, Diet and Foraging § Feeding § Microhabitat for Foraging.
  54. Craig & Pyle 2026, Diet and Foraging § Feeding § Food Capture and Consumption.
  55. Craig & Beal 2001, p. 319.
  56. Craig & Beal 2001, p. 320.
  57. Craig & Beal 2001, p. 321.
  58. Craig & Pyle 2026, Diet and Foraging § Diet § Major Food Items.
  59. Mayr, Ernst (1945). Birds of the southwest Pacific, a field guide to the birds of the area between Samoa, New Caledonia, and Micronesia, by Ernst Mayr, with color plates by Francis Lee Jaques and line drawings by Alexander Seidel. New York: Macmillan Publishers. p. 102.
  60. Baker 1951, p. 314.
  61. Craig & Pyle 2026, Demography and Populations § Causes of Mortality § Depredation.
  62. Wiles, Gary J.; Bart, Jonathan; Beck, Robert E.; Aguon, Celestino F. (2003). "Impacts of the Brown Tree Snake: Patterns of Decline and Species Persistence in Guam's Avifauna". Conservation Biology. 17 (5): 1354. doi:10.1046/j.1523-1739.2003.01526.x. ISSN 0888-8892 – via Wiley.
  63. Savidge, Julie A. (1987). "Extinction of an Island Forest Avifauna by an Introduced Snake". Ecology. 68 (3): 662. doi:10.2307/1938471. ISSN 0012-9658. JSTOR 1938471 – via Wiley.
  64. Hartin, Maxine H. (1961). "Birds of Guam" (PDF). ‘Elepaio. 22. Hawaii Audubon Society: 34. ISSN 0013-6069.

Bibliography